Nutritional Disparities Between Income Groups in the U.S. (1990s–2025)

Introduction

Nutritional status in the United States varies widely by socioeconomic status. Over the past few decades, research has consistently found that lower-income Americans tend to have poorer diet quality and health outcomes compared to higher-income groups. This report examines key nutritional disparities between income classes from the 1990s through 2025, including differences in vitamin intake, calorie consumption (undernutrition and obesity), access to healthy food (food deserts, affordability, quality), urban versus rural differences, age-group variations (children, adults, elderly), and the impact of government nutrition programs (SNAP, WIC, school meals). All findings are sourced from authoritative agencies (USDA, CDC, NIH) and peer-reviewed studies.

Vitamin and Micronutrient Intake by Income Group

Micronutrient Adequacy: Americans with higher incomes generally have higher intakes of essential vitamins and minerals and are less likely to have nutrient inadequacies than those with lower incomesfns-prod.azureedge.us. A USDA analysis of 2007–2010 dietary data found that low-income individuals (including SNAP participants and eligible non-participants) were significantly less likely to meet recommended intakes for most vitamins and minerals compared to higher-income individualsfns-prod.azureedge.us. For example, nutrient-rich foods like fruits, vegetables, and lean proteins are consumed more often in high-income households, leading to better intake of vitamins A, C, B6, calcium, etc., whereas lower-income groups have more frequent shortfalls in these nutrientsfns-prod.azureedge.us. This disparity is partly due to diet patterns: lower-income individuals tend to eat fewer fruits and vegetables and consume more sugar-sweetened beverages, resulting in a less nutrient-dense diet overallbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com. Consequently, deficiencies or inadequate intake of vitamins (such as A, C, D, E) and minerals (like calcium, magnesium, iron) are more common in low-income populations, especially if they do not use supplements.

Supplement Use: One factor contributing to the gap in micronutrient intake is the use of dietary supplements. Higher-income and more educated adults are much more likely to use vitamin/mineral supplements than lower-income adultscdc.govcdc.gov. National data from 2017–2020 show that nearly 60% of U.S. adults use at least one dietary supplement, but supplement use increases steadily with rising incomecdc.gov. This means affluent groups often “top up” their diets with multivitamins or specific nutrient supplements, further ensuring adequate vitamin intake. In contrast, low-income adults – especially those who are food insecure – may rely solely on food for nutrients and thus have higher risks of vitamin deficiencies. For instance, food-insecure older adults have been found to consume lower levels of protein and key vitamins such as A and Cncoa.org. Research on seniors notes that nutrient intake and overall diet quality are poor among low-income older adults, although taking supplements can reduce the risk of deficiencies in this grouppmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.

Trends Since the 1990s: Thanks to public health measures and programs, some micronutrient disparities have improved over time. For example, fortification of staple foods (folic acid in grains, vitamin D in milk) and programs like WIC have reduced certain deficiencies in low-income populations. The rate of iron-deficiency anemia in young children fell from 7.8% in 1975 to 2.9% by 1985, an improvement the CDC partly attributed to nutrition programs like WIC that provide iron-fortified infant formula and cerealsfns.usda.gov. Since the 1990s, severe vitamin deficiency diseases have become rare in the U.S. Generally, however, the relative gap in micronutrient intake between rich and poor has persisted. Recent studies continue to find that wealthier Americans eat diets closer to recommendations – with more fruits, vegetables, and whole grains – whereas poorer Americans have diets higher in refined grains, added sugars, and fats, contributing to less vitamin-rich nutritionbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.compmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. In summary, income remains a strong determinant of vitamin and mineral intake adequacy.

Calorie Consumption, Undernutrition, and Obesity

Undernutrition and Food Insecurity: In a country as affluent as the U.S., outright caloric deficiency (chronic hunger leading to underweight) is not widespread, but it disproportionately affects those in poverty. Food insecurity – limited or uncertain access to enough food – has consistently been higher among low-income households. In 2023, about 13.5% of U.S. households (18 million households) experienced food insecurity at some pointers.usda.gov, and this burden falls almost entirely on the lowest income brackets. In that year, an estimated 47 million Americans lived in food-insecure households, including over 7 million childreners.usda.gov. Low-income families, especially those under the poverty line, often must reduce meal sizes or skip meals due to lack of resources. These coping strategies can cause intermittent undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and developmental issues in children. For instance, food-insecure older adults consume fewer total calories and protein than their food-secure counterparts, reflecting subtle undernutrition that can exacerbate health problemsncoa.org. However, U.S. safety net programs (discussed later) have helped mitigate the worst hunger. Since the 1990s, the prevalence of very low food security (the most severe hunger category) has typically held around 3–5% of households, indicating a persistent core of families – mostly low-income – facing episodes of true caloric insufficiencyers.usda.gov.

Obesity and Caloric Excess: Paradoxically, lower-income Americans also have higher rates of obesity, a form of malnutrition characterized by excess caloric intake relative to expenditure. Obesity prevalence has surged across all income groups since the 1990s, rising from about 13% of adults in the early 1960s to 30.5% in 1999–2000 and 41.9% by 2017–2020cdc.gov. This epidemic has not affected all groups equally. Adults with lower incomes are more likely to be obese than those with higher incomes, especially among womencdc.govcdc.gov. In 2011–2014 data, for example, U.S. adults in households above 350% of the poverty level had an age-adjusted obesity rate of 31.2%, whereas those at or below 130% of poverty had an obesity rate of about 39–40%cdc.gov. Among women, the gradient is very pronounced – obesity prevalence declines as income rises (45% obese in the lowest income group vs ~30% in the highest)cdc.gov. Men show a less consistent pattern, but certain racial/ethnic subgroups of men also display more obesity at lower SEScdc.gov. The end result is that obesity, and related conditions like type 2 diabetes, disproportionately affect impoverished communities. This “double burden” – coexisting food insecurity and obesity – is partly explained by the economics of food: energy-dense foods high in sugar and fat are cheaper and more accessible in low-income neighborhoods than are fresh, healthy foodspmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Thus, individuals with limited budgets may consume excess calories from cheap processed foods while still lacking in vitamins and protein. Cycles of food scarcity and plenty (for example, running out of groceries by the end of the month) can also promote fat storage and weight gain. Indeed, analyses of national survey data show that SNAP participants (all low-income by definition) have obesity rates around 40%, significantly higher than the ~30% obesity rate of higher-income nonparticipantsfns-prod.azureedge.us, even though reported calorie intake among low-income men is slightly lower on average than among high-income menfns-prod.azureedge.us. This underscores that obesity is not simply a matter of eating “too much” – the quality of calories and the stress of poverty play major roles.

Childhood Obesity: Income-based disparities emerge early in life. Overall child and adolescent obesity has tripled since the 1980s, now affecting about 1 in 5 youths. But children from low-income families are at elevated risk of obesity compared to their more affluent peers. From 2011–2014, obesity prevalence among U.S. youths (ages 2–19) was only 10.9% in the highest income group (>350% FPL) versus roughly 19% in middle and low income groupscdc.gov. In other words, poor children and teens have nearly twice the odds of obesity as those in well-off families. These gaps have been widening for certain demographics – for example, the income disparity in obesity among adolescent girls has grown since the 1990scdc.gov. The patterns reflect both diet and lifestyle differences: low-income children often have less access to healthy foods and safe play spaces, and their families may rely on inexpensive high-calorie foods, contributing to higher BMI. At the same time, it’s notable that severe undernutrition (insufficient calories or stunted growth) is relatively rare among U.S. children today, thanks in part to nutrition assistance programs. The more common issue for disadvantaged children is “hidden hunger” – enough calories but insufficient nutrients – alongside overweight. For example, low-income preschoolers historically had issues like iron deficiency (prior to WIC’s widespread reach), and even today low-income teens tend to have poorer diet quality (lower fruit/vegetable intake, more sugary drinks) than high-income teensbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com.

Adult and Elderly Weight Trends: Among working-age and older adults, similar socioeconomic patterns hold. Adult obesity rose across the board from the 1990s to 2020, but those with less education and income consistently show higher ratescdc.govcdc.gov. Notably, adults without college education (a proxy for lower SES) have obesity rates about 6–12 percentage points higher than college graduatescdc.gov. For senior citizens, obesity has also increased (the share of Americans 65+ with obesity roughly doubled between the early 1990s and late 2010s)prb.org. Lower-income seniors may face a dual challenge: they are vulnerable to malnutrition and unintentional weight loss if they cannot afford enough quality food, yet a subset also struggle with obesity and related chronic diseases. Factors like mobility limitations, high-calorie comfort foods, and metabolic changes contribute. Despite obesity in some seniors, others experience sarcopenia or micronutrient deficiencies. On balance, low-income older adults are more likely to have inadequate dietary intake – one recent study found poor diet quality across a sample of seniors in SNAP or low-income, with especially low intake of vitamins A, C, D, E, calcium, and magnesium (even though supplement use helped somewhat)pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Thus, nutritional disparities persist into old age, affecting both weight-related outcomes and overall health.

Access to Healthy Food: Food Deserts, Affordability, and Quality A critical driver of nutritional disparity is access to healthy foods. Low-income communities often face obstacles in finding affordable, nutritious food – a phenomenon commonly described in terms of food deserts and related concepts. Food Deserts: The USDA defines food deserts as low-income areas with limited access to supermarkets or large grocery stores. In practice, this might mean an urban neighborhood with no grocery store within 1 mile, or a rural area with no supermarket within 10 milesen.wikipedia.org. According to a USDA report, as of 2017 approximately 39.5 million Americans – 12.9% of the population – lived in low-income areas with low food accessen.wikipedia.org. Within that group, an estimated 19 million people had particularly limited access to a supermarket (for example, lacking a vehicle to reach distant stores)fiercehealthcare.comfiercehealthcare.com. These food desert communities are found both in inner-city neighborhoods and rural towns. They often coincide with areas of high poverty and minority populations. Urban food deserts frequently occur in segregated, economically depressed city zones – studies show that urban neighborhoods with higher poverty levels tend to have fewer supermarkets, and predominantly Black and Hispanic neighborhoods often have markedly poorer retail food accessen.wikipedia.org. For instance, a number of predominantly Black urban communities have seen supermarkets disinvest over the years, leaving mostly corner stores or fast-food outlets, which contributes to worse food security and diet qualityen.wikipedia.org. Rural food deserts are also common in parts of the country, especially the South. Rural residents might live many miles from the nearest full-service grocery and must rely on gas stations or dollar stores for food. In 2015, the USDA noted that about 2.4 million rural households were more than 10 miles from a supermarket, meeting the food desert criteriaen.wikipedia.org.

Proximity and Transportation: Beyond distance, transportation plays a role. Low-income households are less likely to own a car, so even a few miles to the store can be a barrier. The USDA’s food access mapping shows pockets where hundreds of thousands of households have no vehicle and no grocery store within a half-mile (urban) or several miles (rural)en.wikipedia.org. Public transit may be limited, especially in rural counties. This means many low-income families either spend extra time/money to reach supermarkets or end up purchasing most food from nearby convenience stores that stock mostly packaged, processed items.

Affordability: Cost is another major factor in healthy food access. Nutritious foods (fresh produce, lean meats, whole grains, low-fat dairy) are often more expensive per calorie than calorie-dense processed foodspmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Research consistently finds that low-income households gravitate toward cheaper sources of calories – such as refined grains, sweets, and fats – because of tight budgetspmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com. For example, $5 can buy either a small bundle of fruits and vegetables or a large volume of pasta, rice, or snack foods. When money is scarce, filling the stomach often takes priority over optimizing nutrition. A 2022 survey reported that nearly half of low-income Americans cited the high cost of healthy food as the biggest barrier to improving their dietnorthwell.edu. Additionally, smaller stores in under-served areas often have higher prices for the same healthy items, due to lack of competition. So even when healthier options are present, they may be priced out of reach for the poorest consumers. Overall, low-income families spend a larger share of their income on food but often can only afford diets that are energy-rich but nutrient-poorpmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.

Food Environment and Quality: The quality of available food is also an issue. In many low-income or remote areas, the limited stores that exist carry a narrow selection of fresh foods, sometimes of lower quality (e.g. bruised produce, about-to-expire dairy). Convenience and corner stores tend to stock shelf-stable, ultra-processed foods high in sodium and sugar. Even when those stores carry some produce, it is frequently of poor quality and varietyen.wikipedia.org. By contrast, wealthier neighborhoods not only have more supermarkets but also farmers markets, health food stores, and better-stocked shops with high-quality produce, organic options, etc. These differences translate directly into what people eat: one study found higher-income households spent significantly more of their grocery dollars on fruits and vegetables and less on sugary desserts, compared to lower-income householdsbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com. Meanwhile, lower-income households, when shopping for food, devote a larger portion of their budget to calorie-dense items like frozen desserts and sugar-sweetened beverages and less to vegetables or high-fiber foodsbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.combmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com. In summary, Americans living in poverty often face a food environment that makes unhealthy eating the default. Healthy foods are harder to find, costlier, and sometimes lower quality in low-income and rural areas, whereas unhealthy options are cheap and plentifulpmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. This structural disparity in food access underlies many of the observed differences in nutrient intake and obesity between income groups. Over the period from the 1990s to 2025, awareness of food deserts grew, and some policy initiatives (e.g. incentivizing grocery stores in food deserts, farmers market vouchers) tried to improve the situation. Nonetheless, as of 2025 tens of millions of Americans – largely the poor – remain without easy access to a healthy diet.

Urban vs. Rural Nutritional Disparities

Obesity and Health Outcomes: There are notable differences in nutritional outcomes between urban and rural settings, often interlinked with income disparities. In general, obesity rates are higher in rural areas than in urban areas in the U.S. According to the CDC’s analysis of 2016 data, 34.2% of adults in non-metropolitan (rural) counties were obese, compared to 28.7% of adults in metropolitan countiesarchive.cdc.gov. This gap has been persistent: earlier surveys (2005–2008 NHANES) showed a similar pattern, and the trend remains that rural communities shoulder a slightly greater burden of obesityarchive.cdc.gov. The disparity holds across most demographic subgroups (age, sex, race) – being rural itself is a risk factor for obesity regardless of incomearchive.cdc.gov. Public health experts attribute this to several factors common in rural America: higher poverty rates, less access to healthy foods and healthcare, cultural dietary preferences (e.g. traditional comfort foods), and fewer opportunities for physical activity (limited recreational facilities, long driving distances vs. walkability)archive.cdc.govarchive.cdc.gov. In essence, rural life can compound nutritional challenges – you may have to drive 30 minutes to the nearest supermarket (if one exists), and the local restaurants or stores skew towards high-calorie convenience foods.

Dietary Differences: Recent research has started to quantify differences in diet composition by urbanization level. A National Institutes of Health study using 2013–2018 NHANES data found measurable gaps in certain nutrient intakes between urban and rural populations. For example, people in rural/small-town areas consumed more added sugars on average, while those in large urban areas consumed more lean protein and vegetablesnorc.org. One analysis noted that large urban-area residents had higher protein intake, whereas rural residents had higher intake of added sugars and total calories from sugary drinksruralhealthinfo.org. These differences align with the availability issues: rural convenience stores stock lots of sodas and snacks, whereas cities often have more diverse food retailers (including health-oriented ones) for those who can afford them. However, it’s important to note that not all urban areas are equal – inner-city low-income neighborhoods can mirror rural food deserts in terms of limited healthy options. In contrast, wealthier urban neighborhoods might have an abundance of supermarkets and farmers markets. So the urban-rural divide interacts with socioeconomic status.

Food Insecurity: Rural areas and urban centers both experience high food insecurity rates, but in different ways. Rural food-insecure households may be isolated with literally no nearby food sources, while urban food-insecure households might be surrounded by food outlets that are unaffordable or unhealthy (a situation sometimes termed “food swamps”). USDA data show that households in rural counties have slightly higher odds of food insecurity than those in suburbs, partly because of economic hardship in rural regions. Also, rural poverty often means less access to assistance services like food pantries or SNAP offices (though many rural residents certainly use SNAP). According to one report, the prevalence of obesity was highest in the rural South – an area with deeply entrenched poverty – which highlights the intersection of location and incomearchive.cdc.govarchive.cdc.gov.

Urban Advantages and Challenges: Urban residents generally have closer proximity to supermarkets and hospitals, which can aid nutrition and health. Cities have seen initiatives like urban farms, mobile produce vendors, and healthier corner store programs aimed at tackling food deserts. Yet, urban low-income communities still face intra-urban disparities. For instance, a large city may have affluent districts with health food stores and also low-income districts where the only nearby eateries are fast-food chains. Studies in cities like Chicago have documented that low-income urban households purchase diets inferior in quality (less produce, more sugary drinks) compared to higher-income urban households, reflecting both economic and neighborhood constraintsbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.combmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com. Therefore, while being in a city theoretically gives more food options, the practical access for a poor urban family may not be much better than for a rural family.

In summary, rural Americans face particular challenges (geographic isolation, high poverty, fewer healthy food outlets) that lead to worse nutrition outcomes on average than urban Americans. Urban poor populations also struggle, but there is more heterogeneity within urban areas. Both contexts show that where people live – not just how much they earn – influences their diet. These urban-rural differences have been recognized in policy; for example, the CDC’s High Obesity Program specifically funds interventions in counties with over 40% obesity, mostly rural areas where healthy foods and exercise opportunities are scarcearchive.cdc.gov.

Nutritional Disparities Across Age Groups

Nutritional inequities by income manifest across all age groups, but the specific challenges differ for children, adults, and the elderly. Below, we highlight how low income status affects the

nutrition of different age populations: Children (Infants to Adolescents): From infancy, children in lower-income families face nutritional risks. Infants born into poverty are more likely to have mothers with inadequate prenatal nutrition, which can affect birth weight and development. Programs like WIC have narrowed some gaps (improving infant feeding practices and nutrient intake), but disparities remain. Low-income children tend to have lower overall diet quality – for instance, consuming fewer fruits, vegetables, and dairy – compared to higher-income childrenbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com. By preschool age, without interventions, many low-income kids show higher rates of deficiencies such as iron-deficiency anemia (historically a big problem before widespread WIC coverage)fns.usda.gov. As noted, childhood obesity disproportionately affects poor and minority youths: about 18–20% of children below 130% FPL are obese vs ~11% of those in high-income familiescdc.gov. Moreover, food insecurity impacts millions of children, though parents often shield kids from the worst hunger by sacrificing their own mealsers.usda.gov. An unsettling statistic from 2023 is that in 8.9% of U.S. households with children, both children and adults experienced food insecurity during the yearers.usda.gov. Even mild food insecurity can lead to poorer academic performance and behavioral issues in kids, compounding the effects of poor nutrition. On a positive note, children participating in nutrition programs (WIC in early childhood, and free/reduced-price school meals later) have been shown to consume more key nutrients and have better health indicators than low-income children who do not receive such supportfns.usda.govncbi.nlm.nih.gov. This suggests that interventions in childhood are effective at reducing nutritional disparities.

Working-Age Adults: Among adults (20–64 years), diet and health disparities by income are well documented. Lower-income adults typically consume diets higher in calories from sugars and unhealthy fats, and lower in fiber and micronutrients, compared to higher-income adultsbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com. They also have higher rates of obesity, as discussed, and related conditions like diabetes and hypertension. For example, adults below the poverty line are more likely to have insufficient intake of vitamins A, C, E, calcium, and potassium – nutrients which are abundant in produce and dairy that may be financially out of reachfns-prod.azureedge.us. Food insecure adults often report skipping meals or buying cheaper but less healthy foods to stretch their budget, leading to weight fluctuations and stress. Education also plays a role: less educated adults (who often have lower incomes) tend to have less nutrition knowledge and different dietary habits, which partially explains why obesity prevalence is ~46% for those with only a high school education vs. 34% for college graduatescdc.gov. Over the past few decades, many middle- and upper-income Americans responded to public health messages by cutting back on soda, smoking, etc., but low-income adults have had less improvement in diet quality, thereby widening gaps. Notably, certain subgroups – such as low-income women of color – face compounding disparities (e.g. very high obesity rates, higher risk of nutrient-poor diets). For working-age adults, being food insecure has mental health implications too, with higher reported rates of depression and anxiety linked to the stress of not being able to afford foodfiercehealthcare.com.

Older Adults (Seniors 65+): The elderly population in poverty experiences unique nutritional challenges. Aging itself can reduce appetite and nutrient absorption, and when combined with low income, it puts seniors at high risk for malnutrition. Many low-income seniors live alone and on fixed incomes, making it hard to afford nutritious food or physically get to stores. Approximately 5% of seniors (ages 60+) in the U.S. are food insecure, but the rate is higher (over 8%) for seniors in povertypmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govpmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. These individuals often consume monotonous, low-cost diets – for example, tea and toast or cheap canned foods – lacking sufficient protein, vitamins, and fresh produce. Studies show that low-income older Americans have significantly poorer nutrient intake and diet quality than their higher-income peerspmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Deficiencies in vitamins like B12 and D, and minerals like calcium, are common, exacerbated by difficulties affording supplements or nutrient-rich foods like fruits and dairy. This can lead to health issues such as anemia, weakened immunity, and worsening of chronic conditions. Another paradox is that some low-income seniors are obese (due to lifelong habits and cheap diets) even as they are malnourished in micronutrients and muscle mass. Access to programs like the Senior Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program and home-delivered meals (e.g. Meals on Wheels) can improve seniors’ nutrition, but not all who need these resources receive them. Since the 1990s, senior hunger has gained attention – for instance, a report found the “state of senior hunger” worsened during the 2008 recession and has only modestly improved sincepmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Overall, ensuring that elderly Americans in poverty can obtain nutrient-dense foods remains a significant challenge.

In summary, income-based nutritional disparities span from childhood to old age, but manifest in different ways. Children might face developmental risks from inadequate nutrition or obesity that tracks into adulthood. Adults in poverty experience diet-related health disparities that can reduce productivity and quality of life. Elderly individuals in poverty struggle to meet their nutritional needs, impacting their independence and health outcomes. A life-course approach to nutrition assistance is therefore critical to address these age-specific issues.

Role and Impact of Government Nutrition Programs (SNAP, WIC, School Meals)

Government food assistance programs have been fundamental in reducing nutritional disparities in the United States. The major programs – SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program), WIC (Women, Infants, and Children), and the National School Lunch/Breakfast Programs – serve tens of millions of low-income Americans and are designed to alleviate hunger and improve diet quality. Here we examine their role and impact:

Nutritional disparities between income classes in the United States remain a significant public health concern in 2025. Lower-income Americans are more likely to experience both undernutrition (due to food insecurity and micronutrient deficiencies) and overnutrition (high rates of obesity and diet-related diseases), a reflection of the high cost and poor availability of healthy food options in their communities. These disparities are evident in vitamin intake (with inadequacies far more common in the poor), in calorie consumption patterns, and in health outcomes. Geographic factors intersect with income, as seen by the challenges in rural areas and inner-city food deserts lacking access to quality foods. Importantly, these issues touch all age groups – from children who may struggle with obesity or hunger, to working adults facing chronic diseases, to seniors at risk of malnutrition – perpetuating cycles of health inequality. The past few decades have also shown that targeted interventions can make a difference. Federal nutrition programs like SNAP, WIC, and school meals have mitigated the worst hunger and improved diet for millions, though they have not completely eliminated gaps in diet quality. Reforms such as the improved nutrition standards in school meals demonstrate progress in narrowing disparitiespubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Looking ahead, a comprehensive strategy is needed to ensure all Americans, regardless of income, have the knowledge and means to eat a healthy diet. This may involve increasing economic access to nutritious foods (through subsidies or pricing strategies), continuing to invest in food assistance programs, and addressing the environmental factors (like food deserts and food marketing) that contribute to unhealthy eating in low-income communities. Bridging the nutritional divide is vital for reducing health inequities and fostering a healthier, more equitable society. Sources: • U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service – Reports on food insecurity, food access, and diet quality by incomeers.usda.goven.wikipedia.orgfns-prod.azureedge.us. • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – NHANES analyses of obesity and nutrition by income, MMWR reportscdc.govcdc.govarchive.cdc.gov. • National Institutes of Health & peer-reviewed studies – Research on diet quality, nutrient intake disparities, and program impactsbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.compmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. • USDA Food and Nutrition Service – Program fact sheets and studies (WIC, SNAP, school meals)fns.usda.govfns-prod.azureedge.uspubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.